by

Mr. Yu Fuzeng
President, Chinese Association of
Universities and Colleges for Foreign Student Affairs
Special Consultant
Beijing Academy of Educational Science
The People Republic of China

China is a country with huge population that accounts for one fifth of the total population of the world. The data about education development from the latest census for 2000 in China has shown that much progress has been achieved in the field of education in the past 10 years.

Table 1 Number of People Finishing Different Level of Education in 100000

It can be seen from the table 1 that the rate of illiteracy among people aged 15 and above in 2000 is 6.72%. 37,057 people in every 100,000 are with the education level equivalent to finishing primary education. 33,961 people in every 100,000 are with the education level equivalent to finishing junior secondary education. 11,146 people in every 100,000 are with the education level equivalent to finishing senior secondary education and 3,611 in every 100,000 are with the education level equivalent to finishing post-secondary education of two years or more.

Compared with that in 1990, the rate of illiteracy among those aged 15 and above in 2000 has decreased by 9.16 percent points. The number of the people in every 100,000 with education level equivalent to finishing primary education has decreased by 4 percent points. The number of the people in every 100,000 with education level equivalent to finishing junior secondary education has increased by 45 percent points. The number of the people in every 100,000 with education level equivalent to finishing senior secondary education has increased by 39 percent points. The number of the people in every 100,000 with education level equivalent to finishing post-secondary education of two years or more has increased by 154 percent points. The number of illiterates and the number of people in every 100,000 with education level equivalent to finishing primary education and illiterate has decreased. And the number of people in every 100,000 with education level equivalent to finishing junior secondary education and above has all increased.

However, 50 years ago when New China was born in 1949, 80% of population was illiterate and only 20% of school age children had access to education. Even by early 1960ies, a decade after New China was born; there was still more than 50% of labor force in rural area being illiterate.

The progress in education in China is not only the result of economic development, the education itself has also made important contributions to economic development.

The late leader of the State, Mao Zedong said in early 1950 that what China could make? China could make stools and desks, could grind wheat into flour and could make paper as well. But China could not make iron and steel, could not make any machines such as automobiles and airplanes. This was the economic situation in China in 1949. As the starting point of economic development for New China is very low, the population of the country is very large and the natural growth of population before the late of 1970ies is very high, thus the level of economic development in China had been kept very low for a quite long period of time. For instance, per capita GDP for the whole country in 1980, thirty years after New China was born, was only 200 Yuan, being only $25 in conversion rate of 1995. And per capita GDP in many rural areas was even less, being only about 50 Yuan. The total population in 1949 was already more than 500 million and it increased so quickly that by 1964 its total population was already close to 700 million and by 1982 it further increased to over a billion of people. With such a low level of economic development for the period of about 30 years and with such huge population, how did China manage to make such progress in the field of education? What contribution has education in China made to the economic development of the country? There are both experiences and lessons for the development of education in China.

In this paper I will discuss on development and reform in four areas of education in China. They are education for all, compulsory education, secondary education and higher education.

Education for all

Education for all refers to basic education and literacy education in developing countries. For basic education, it means that school age children should have access to primary education and complete primary education. And for literacy education, it means that the adults who missed primary education should be provided chance to education to become literate.

Table 2 Rates of Illiteracy and Enrolment Ratio for Primary Education

It can be seen from table 2 that the rate of illiteracy in China in the past 50 years has been maintained declining. But after 50 years' endeavor in literacy education there are still about 70 million of illiterates in China.

What are the experiences and lessons in literacy education in China?
Making literacy education a priority in government's endeavor in educational development Right after New China was born, the Chinese government made literacy education one of priorities in the field of education. In the past 50 years several movement had been launched for wiping out illiteracy in China. The whole society had been mobilized for wiping out illiteracy, making all levels of governments and people pay much attention to education development. And there are many cases in China showing that how government and people were working on educational development in hard conditions.

The target of wiping out illiteracy could not be attained in short period of time. In each campaign of wiping out illiteracy that had been launched in China in the past 50 years, a target of wiping out illiteracy that was set to work on in a certain period of time such as 5 years or ten years was never attained. It has proved that wiping out illiteracy is an arduous task and it could not be fulfilled in a short period of time. Developing countries should prepare to work hard on it for a long time such as several decades that would be needed. The experiences and practices in China has proved that the rate of illiteracy can not be reduced very fast, the rate of illiteracy can only be reduced by 1% to 2% annually.

To ensure access to education for all school age children is fundamental measure to solve the problem of illiteracy

During the beginning period of New China, the issue of illiteracy was the legacy of old China. That is to say that the issue of illiteracy was coursed by backwardness of education in old China. However, in a dozen of years after New China was born, the issue of illiteracy was both the legacy of old China and new illiteracy that was generated in New China because of the failure of having access to education for all school age children. Literacy education is a remedial measure to help illiterate to become literate. Literacy education in developing countries should only exist for certain period of time. And how long it could exist largely depends on the enrolment ratio of primary education in a country. In 1960ies there were still over 50% of adults being illiterate in China, most of them were coursed by missing primary education in old China. But during this period, enrolment ratio for primary education in China was already over 80%. And since then, the enrolment ratio for primary education had been maintained increasing. Though new illiteracy was still generated in new China, as the enrolment ratio for primary education had been maintained more than 90% for over 30 years, the absolute number of illiterates has been kept decreasing. However, because of the large size of population in China, the absolute number of new illiterates that were generated is not small. Since literacy education is only a remedial measure, it can not substitute primary education. Wiping out illiteracy is the goal for all developing countries. But this goal can only be attained under the condition that all school age children were ensured to be in school. The goal can never be attained if a large percentage of school age children were kept out off school.

What are the experiences and lessons in popularizing primary education in China?

Making access to education for all school age children as one of fundamental policy of the government

It is mentioned above that enrolment ratio for primary education in 1949, when New China was born, was only 20%. The government of New China has made that all school age children should have access to primary education one of fundamental policies of the State. All levels of government were made to take measures to ensure the access to education for all school age children.

Set up a school in every village

What is the most difficulty hindering school age children to go to school in early days of New China is the poor economy in rural area. At the time the major problem that should be solved is that the people could feed themselves first. Once the issue of feeding themselves that would be only at low level was solved, the government and people should manage to guarantee the access to education for school age children. The effective measure to make sure that school age children should be in school is that there should be a school in every village. The government should be responsible for sending and paying teachers; villagers should be responsible for having a school building. Because of low level of economic development in villages, one cannot expect much better conditions of school building. Many school buildings in rural areas in China had been in poor condition before 1980.

Table 3 Primary Schools and Pupils in Jiangpu County

Here is a case to show the process of primary education development in China in past 50 years. Jiangpu country is located in the suburb of Nanjing, the capital of Jiangsu Province that ranks now second economically in the whole country. And education development in Jiangsu Province is also well advanced in the country. But education policy of the Central Government applied to whole country. Therefore, the situation of primary education development in the past 50 years in Jiangpu County can represent the whole country.

It can be seen from table 3 that the population in Jiangpu County has been keeping on increase. And the pupils in primary school have been keeping on increase as well. But the number of primary schools has been keeping on decrease. In 1952, there was a school to be set in every village for the convenience of school age children to go to school. As villages were poor economically and with uneasy transportation, school age children would be able to go to school if school was set up nearby their home. As economic situation was improving, the efficiency in primary education has become the issue to be given more attention. The number of schools was reduced and the number of pupils per school increased along with economic development.

The balance between the opportunity and the quality of education

This is the question that should be addressed in the whole process of education development. When large a number of school age children were not in school, the opportunity of education for school age children should be given more attention. At same time one should also pay attention to the quality of education. In China the policy of unified textbooks and syllabus for the whole country has been practiced and teacher training has been given priority. Therefore, the quality of education could be ensured at a certain degree.

Local initiatives to ensure access to education for school age children
During ten years of turmoil from 1966-1976, the country was not in normal order, but more than 90% of school age children could still go to school. The shortage of teachers for school operation during this period was one of most difficulties. Because the country's economy was not in normal and government's revenue was constrained. The funding for education both from the Central Government and provincial government was cut. Reduction of the funding for education from the government had resulted in reduced number of teachers to be employed on government pay list. Further more, teacher-training colleges and schools were closed for more than 6 years and they could not operate normally even after they restarted to recruit new students. Therefore, the trained teachers that could be sent to work in schools during these 10 years were very limited in number. But the growth of population had not stopped and even more children needed to go to school. To solve the problem of the shortage of teachers was the key to ensuring school age children to be in school. The initiative of local government and villagers to solve the shortage of teachers had ensured school operation during this special period in China. Not only teachers were found locally and locally employed teachers were also paid locally. More than 60% of teachers working in primary and junior secondary school during this period were teachers employed locally. Because of constrained funding, the salary level of locally paid teachers was lower than that of teachers employed by government. It is unfair that teachers paid by government and teachers paid locally were working in same school and doing the same job, but paid differently. But the informality in teacher employing made it possible for high percentage of school age children to be in school. That is the only choice for China during this special period, though it is unfair.

Quality of teacher is the key to development of primary education

Central Government started to remedy the informality in teacher employing from 1980ies. Through examination, those who are up to the set academic qualification could enjoy the status of teachers employed by government; those who failed to be up to the set academic qualification are rendered chance for further study. If they still failed to be up to the set academic standard through examination after further study, they would be transferred to other profession. By the middle of 1990ies the majority of teachers formally employed locally had been transferred to teachers enjoying the status of teachers employed by government.

Economic development further promote the development of primary education
The economy including rural economic development in China has been brought onto the track of fast development since 1978 when China started to practice the policy of reform and opening out. With the increase of farmers' income and the improvement of farmers' living standard, the condition of school buildings in villages has drawn the attention of farmers. Under the organization of village committee that the best building in village are the building for schools has become a reality in many rural areas in 1980ies. But before 1978, the conditions of school buildings were usually among the worst in villages, as villagers could only use the vacant house whatever was available or simply built house within the economic capacity of villagers to be school buildings. And it is the first time since 1949 when New China was born that the condition of school building in rural area has been much improved.

Compulsory education

During the years from 1949 to 1978, the government stressed the provision of access to primary education for school age children. In early 1980ies the government had stressed the popularization of primary education. There wasn't a law of compulsory education in China until 1985. After heated argument among administrators and scholars in the field of education, the Central Government decided to practice 9-year compulsory education from 1985. And in 1986 "Compulsory Education Law of the People's Republic of China", the first since 1949, was adopted and promulgated.

Table 4 Enrolment of Junior Secondary School

It can be seen from table 4 that 95.9% of school age children in 1985 were able to go primary school, but the ratio of pupils entering junior secondary school after finishing primary education in 1985 was only 68.4%. Therefore, the key to popularization of 9 year education is to expand junior secondary education.

What are the experiences and lessons in carrying out compulsory education in China?

Quite a high percentage of children finishing primary education were able to go to junior secondary education before 1985. Though there was no law of compulsory education enforcing junior secondary education before 1985, the ratio of pupils entering junior secondary education after finishing primary education was comparative high. For instance, the ratio of pupils entering junior secondary education after finishing primary education was as high as 84% in 1965; that is to say that the majority of pupils finishing primary school continued their junior secondary education in early 1960ies. And during the turmoil of 10 years' "cultural revolution" when the country was not in normal order, the ratio of pupils entering junior secondary education after finishing primary education was even higher; it is as high as 90.5% in 1975.

The ratio of pupils entering junior secondary education after finishing primary education went down from the late of 1970ies

The ratio of pupils entering junior secondary education after finishing primary education was only 75.9% in 1980 and it went further down to 68.4% in 1985. The adoption and promulgation of the law of 9-year compulsory education had changed the trend of decline with regards to the ratio of pupils entering junior secondary school after finishing primary education. By 1990 it went up to 74.6% and it went further up to 90.8% in 1990.

The strategy of carrying out compulsory education

The 9-year compulsory education law does not stipulate the deadline for the fulfilling of compulsory education for the whole country. But it stipulates, "the department in charge of education under the State Council, in accordance with this law, formulate rules for its implementation". The Ministry of Education has worked out a work plan, which was approved by the State Council, to implement compulsory education with different targets set for three categories of areas as regards the level of economic development and education. By the year of 2000, 9-year compulsory education has been fulfilled in the area inhabited by 85% of population.

To reform the administrative system of education

The new change in the administration of education, which was made in 1985, is that the authorities of each level of governments are made to assume the responsibility of the carrying out of compulsory education. For instance, the lowest level of government, township government, is for the first time by the regulation to be made to administer primary and secondary education, and a certain amount of revenue of township government, which is regulated by the Central Government, to be used for education.

To ensure the funding of compulsory education

Except the budget for education expenditure by all levels of government should be guaranteed and be maintained on increase along with economic development, surtax for education in rural area has been levied since 1985 for carrying out compulsory education in rural area. And the State subsidizes those areas that are in financial difficulty to carry out compulsory education. For instance, "a project of compulsory education" was launched by Central Government in 1995. The total funding for the project is 11 billion Yuan, one third of which is coming from Central Government, one third is from provincial government and one third is from local governments. 90% of the funding of the project was used to improve infrastructure of primary and junior secondary schools in economically poor areas. The rest was used for teacher training.

The profession of teaching as one of most welcomed professions in society

To raise the social status of teachers

A number of measures have been taken by the government. For instance, to foster a social atmosphere of respecting teachers, Oct. 10 has been made the day of teacher, teachers who have made major contributions to education in their teaching would be honored model teachers and awarded by the government. "Teachers Law of the People's Republic of China" has been adopted and promulgated in 1994. The law stipulates that teachers' average salary shall not be lower than that of public servants and shall be gradually raised. At same time the quality of teacher have been strengthened. The administrative departments of education guide and supervise the assessment work for teachers. Teachers' political awareness and ideological level, professional qualifications, attitudes towards their work and their performances would be assessed. In the process of assessment, opinions of teachers themselves, their colleagues and students shall be taken into full consideration. The assessment results shall be the basis for teachers' appointment and pay rise as well as rewards and punishment.

To change the policy of administration according to new situation

The policy of administering education by different levels of government has been practiced for more than 15 years since 1985. There were some problems appearing under the administration pattern that hinder the development of compulsory education, especially in rural areas. The new pattern of administration of education that is decided by the Central government stresses the administration by county level of government. The new policy stipulates that two levels of government with county government as main body administer compulsory education in a county.

To modernize the content of teaching textbook and materials in schools

Along with the advent of knowledge economy and information society, reform of curriculum has been given high priority. Quality education has been addressed in an all-round way.

Secondary education

Secondary education includes junior secondary education that is part of compulsory education in China. As mentioned above that in the past 50 years fairly large percentage of pupils finishing primary education go on with their junior secondary education. When the ratio of pupils finishing primary education going on with their junior secondary education was descending in early 1980ies, 9-year compulsory education policy turned the trend of decline. And in 2000, more than 94% of pupils finishing primary education go on with junior secondary education. Junior secondary education for all children in rural area may be one of prerequisites for rural development in developing countries.

Table 5 Labor Force in Township Enterprises

Table 6 Sources of Income for Farmers

Township enterprises are the enterprises located in rural areas and run by townships or villages. The employees employed by township and village run enterprises are mainly former farmers from rural areas. It can be seen from table 5 that the township enterprises have employed 125 million workers in 1995. The survey has also demonstrated that 70% to 80% of those working in township enterprises are educated at least for 9 years. Supposed that the ratio of those entering junior secondary education after finishing primary education is lower than 50% in China, the currant development of township enterprises in China in the past 20 years would not be attained. What is more that it can be seen from table 6 that the income that comes from township enterprises accounts for one third of the total income of farmers.

Another example that shows the importance of junior secondary education is that there are over 100 million people from rural area, who are working in urban areas. And the survey also shows that 70% of them are educated for 9 years. It proves it again that educational development in rural area make it possible for large a number of labor force to work in cities meeting the need of manpower in urban development. This is a case in China to show that educational development in rural area has made contribution to urban development.
What I am going to discuss in this part of paper is mainly the secondary education at senior level.

Table 7 Distribution of Enrolments in Secondary Schools at Senior Level

Note:
A: Rate of the enrolment of regular senior secondary school as percentage of all enrolments in secondary schools at senior level;
B: Rate of the enrolment of specialized secondary school;
C: Rate of the enrolment of skilled workers school;
D: Rate of the enrolment of vocational school.
(In China there are vocational secondary schools at junior level, but its enrolment is small in number. I do not discuss it here.)

What are the experiences and lessons in the development of secondary education in China?

The enrolment of regular senior secondary school is affected by the policy of the government on vocational education and the enrolment of higher education. Regular senior secondary schools prepare students going on with higher education. The State's policy on vocational education and the enrolment for institutions of higher education usually affect the enrolment in regular senior secondary school. For instance, as the government practiced "two education system, two labor system" in early 1960ies, a larger number of agriculture schools, which were supposed to prepare students to go farming after graduation, were set up in rural area. Therefore, 70% of the enrolment in secondary schools at senior level in 1965 was in agriculture school. And when the policy of "two education system, two labor system " was repudiated during 10 years' turmoil of "culture revolution", and then "one education system" was practiced. It is, therefore, that 94% of the enrolments in secondary schools at senior level were in regular senior secondary schools. But it is because that the enrolment of institutions of higher learning could not expand accordingly, the policy of one education system had resulted in large number of graduates from regular senior secondary schools, who were neither able to go to institutions of higher learning, nor received any skill training. Since 1980ies, vocational education have been encouraged and a larger number of regular senior secondary schools had become vocational school, making the enrolment of regular senior secondary schools decrease and account for only about 50% of the total enrollments in secondary schools at senior level. From 1998, the Central Government started to carry out the policy of expansion of enrollment of higher education, thus leading the expansion of the enrollment of regular senior secondary schools. The enrollment of regular senior secondary schools as percentage of the total enrolment of secondary schools at senior level in 2000 has increased by 10 percent points more than that in 1995. The policy of expansion of higher education and of expansion of regular senior secondary education in China would be maintained in the years to come, as Central Government has set the target of having 15% of youth aged 18-24 to be in higher education by the year of 2010.

Specialized secondary school plays very important role in vocational and technical education

Specialized secondary schools include two kinds of schools. They are technical school and normal school. Technical schools train technicians at medium level. Normal school trains teachers for primary school. Before 1965 there were technical and normal schools at junior level, but they were phased out since 1965.

Table 8 Enrolments of Specialized Secondary Schools

It can be seen from table 8 that the enrollment in normal schools as percentage of the total enrolments of specialized secondary schools has been decreasing. It is because that more and more provincial government has upgraded the qualification of primary school teachers. More primary school teachers were trained in post-secondary institutions of two years or more. The Central government's policy on normal school is that normal school at senior secondary level will be phased out gradually along with development of higher education.

It can be seen from table 7 that the enrollments in specialized secondary schools as percentage of total enrolments of technical and vocational schools have been maintained increasing from 1980 to 1995. And after the government started to practice the policy of expansion of regular senior secondary school in 1998, the enrolment in specialized technical school had declined by 0.9 % in 2000.

The enrolments in the programs of engineering in specialized secondary school are the most

Table 9 Distribution of Enrolment by Program in Technical School

It can be seen from table 9 that top five programs as regards the enrolment in 1980 are industry, health related, agriculture, business and management, and art; and top five programs as regards the enrolment in 2000 are industry, business and management, health related, art and agriculture. The main feature of the distribution of enrolment by program of study is that majority of enrolments is in the programs of industry, and the percentage of enrolment in the programs of industry in 2000 had increased by 8 percent points more than that in 1980. The large number of graduates from program of industry has made important contribution to industrial advancement in past 20 years. The sharp increase of enrollment in the program of business and management during 1980 to 2000 has adapted to the need of market economy in the country.

It also can be seen from table 9 that though absolute enrolment in the programs of agriculture has increased from 1980 to 2000, but the enrolment in the programs of agriculture as percentage of total enrolment in technical schools has decreased sharply, declining from 15.4% to 4.6%. It shows that the manpower demand in agriculture cannot be very great.
Recruitment and tuition of specialized secondary school

Before the reform that had taken place in 1980ies, the students in specialized technical schools were recruited through examination, did not need to pay tuition and were assigned job by the government after graduation. The reform in tuition and job assignment is that students are required to pay tuition and no longer assigned job by government after graduation.

Schools that training workers working in enterprises

Skilled worker schools were run first by enterprises to train skilled workers to work in its own enterprises. The schools of this kind now are enjoying autonomy as school institution, but still closely related to enterprises. Schools of this kind are supposed to train workers. Majority of programs in skilled worker school is programs in industry.

It can be seen from table 7 that the enrolment in skilled worker school as percentage of total enrolment of vocational and technical schools at senior level has decreased from 11.4% in 1995 to 6.9% in 2000. That is to say that when the government started to practice the policy of expansion of regular senior secondary education in 1998, the enrolment in skilled worker school had declined by 4.5% in 2000, much more than that in specialized secondary school.

The setting up and development of vocational schools

Vocational schools in China are the schools that have been transferred from regular senior secondary schools in 1980ies. The programs in vocational school, which are set up according to the demand of manpower locally, are more in services and local department of education of the government usually run vocational schools. It can be seen from table 7 that its enrolments have been down and up in quantity. When the government started to practice the policy of expansion of regular senior secondary education in 1998, its enrolment had declined by 4.6% in 2000, much more than that in specialized technical school and almost the same with that in skilled worker school.

Secondary education for large a number of labor force may be one of prerequisites for economic development, especially rural development in developing countries

The experiences and practices in past 20 years in China have proved that secondary education is very important for economic development. It has been one of prerequisites for the economic development, especially rural development. For instance, the township enterprises in Jiangsu province in 1996 employed 6.31 million of workers. The survey in 1996 had shown that 39.6% of them are with the education of junior secondary level, 46.7% of them are with the education of senior secondary level and 4.55% are with the education of college level or above. Therefore, It is 86.3% of workers working in township enterprises, who are with the education of secondary level, including both junior and senior secondary level. It has also proved that education plays very important role in township enterprises. And the fact that only 4.55% of them are with the education of college level or above have proved that there is much room for further improvement with regards the manpower training level on the one hand, and on the other one should not wait to run township enterprises until there is more manpower with education of college level.

Comparing with education background of manpower working in agriculture, it is interested to note that in 1998, 45.0% of rural labor force is educated for 9 years, 10.8% of rural labor force is educated for 12 years, and 0.4% is with the education of college level. The education level of farmers is much lower than that of farmers working in township enterprises located in rural area.

Higher education

The administration and development of higher education in China possesses the following features.

Two levels of administration pattern

Until 2000, three kinds of organs, Ministry of Education and other Ministries of Central Government and provincial governments were administering universities and colleges.

Table 10 Institutions of Higher Learning by Administration

It can be seen from table 10 that in 1996 provincial governments had administered about two third of institutions of higher learning, and ministries of the Central Government, including the Ministry of Education had administered about one third of institutions of higher learning, and the number of universities and colleges that are administered by the Ministry of Education is comparatively small. By the 2000, provincial governments have administered the majority of institutions of higher learning, ministries of the Central Government are administering about one tenth of universities and colleges, out of which the Ministry of Education is administering the most. This is the outcome of the readjustment that had been taken by the Central Government to make universities and colleges more adapted to the need of the development and expansion of higher education for the future. One of courses that has promoted this change is that the size of staff in ministries of the Central Government had been cut by 50% in 1999 and some of ministries, mainly ministries of industry of the Central Governments have been abolished.

Ministries of the Central Government and provincial government are administering universities and colleges means mainly where universities and colleges get operation funding. And ministries of industry and other profession are administering universities and colleges also means that universities and colleges have to first consider the manpower demand of the ministry concerned. All universities and colleges in China have to follow the general policy that has been worked out by the Ministry of Education on behalf of the Central Government. And "Higher Education Law of the People's Republic of China", which was adopted and promulgated in 1998, has been the basic rule and regulation to be followed by all institutions of higher learning. "Higher Education Law of the People's Republic of China" stipulates that "higher education institutions shall be oriented to the needs of society and shall run the schools on their own and in accordance with law and administer democratic management."

2. Classification of institutions of higher learning

The institutions of higher learning in china have been classified into regular institutions and adult institutions of higher learning. As far as higher education concerned that it is regulated that candidates to apply to regular institutions of higher learning should not be over 25 years old. Candidates aged 26 and above can only apply to adult institutions of higher learning. This is a main criterion to be followed in classifying higher education institution into regular and adult institution of learning.

Table 11 Regular and Adult Institutions of Higher Learning

It should be pointed out that the above classification is not observed strictly in practice. Universities and colleges can hold adult education from 1950ies and along with the development and expansion of higher education, some adult institutions of higher learning can also recruit students who are aged younger than 25 years old. In 2001, the age limit for candidates to apply to regular institutions of higher learning has been abolished. There are candidates, who are aged 60 even 70, taking entrance examination to universities and colleges in 2001. Therefore, the line between regular and adult institutions of higher learning has been blurred that will be conducive to the development of higher education.

Factories and enterprises can also run adult institutions of higher learning. For instance, the number of adult institutions of higher learning in 1975 was more than ten thousand. It is because that the government had the policy to encourage factories to run colleges during "culture revolution", factories followed the policy and great a number of colleges sprang up all over the country. In fact many of them were not colleges at all by academic standard. 772 adult institutions of higher learning in 2000 are presented in table 12.

Table 12 Institutions and enrolments of higher education for adult

It can be seen from table 12 that total enrolments in the institutions of higher education for adult listed in 2000 are 1.118 million. But the total enrolments for adult higher education in 2000 are 3.356 million (see table 11). The rest of enrolments for adult higher education are students studying in regular universities and colleges.

High ratio of the enrolments in the programs of engineering
The ratio of enrolments in programs of engineering in higher education has been the highest that have made important contributions to industrial development in China.

Table 13 Distribution of Enrolment by Major Programs

It can be seen from table 13 that there have been around 40% of enrolments that are in the programs of engineering in past 50 years. Quite a number of higher education institutions that have been independent institutions of engineering (see table 14) and much importance the government has attached to engineering education for training manpower serving industrialization of the country constitute the main reasons for fast industrial development of the country. I think that large number of technical personal trained in higher education constitute a very important factor for fast economic development of the country in past 20 years.

Table 14 Type of institutions of Higher Education